http://www.ja.net/documents/services/video/vcaudiovideo.pdf

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Videoconferencing Audio & Video Equipment
Author: Jim Sheach, MALTS, University of Edinburgh
Version: 1
1. OVERVIEW
2. HEALTH AND SAFETY
3. SIGNAL QUALITY
4. INSTALLATION OF AUDIO AND VIDEO EQUIPMENT
5. THE VIDEOCONFERENCING ENVIRONMENT
6. ROOM CONTROL SYSTEMS
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Methods of Remote Control
6.3 Control Systems
7. VIDEO EQUIPMENT
7.1 Introduction
7.2 The Transmission of Video Information
7.3 Video Sources
7.4 Genlocking/Timing/Colour Phasing
7.5 Categories of Video Equipment
7.6 Digital/Analogue Signals
7.7 Video Cameras
7.8 Document Viewers
7.9 Slide Viewers
7.10 Vision Switcher/Mixer
7.11 Picture Monitors
7.12 Camera Pan and Tilt Heads
7.13 Video Players/Recorders
7.14 Scan Converters for Computers
7.15 Data Projectors
7.16 Video equipment connections
8. AUDIO EQUIPMENT
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Audio Installation
8.3 Echo Cancellation
8.4 Microphones
8.5 Audio Mixers
8.6 Audio Equipment Connections
9. DISTRIBUTION EQUIPMENT
9.1 Distribution Amplifiers (DAs)
9.2 Fibre Drivers
10. TEST AND MONITORING EQUIPMENT
11. GLOSSARY
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1. OVERVIEW
The aim of this document is to give some guidance on the selection and
installation of audio and video equipment that will interface with a standalone
CODEC for use in videoconferencing. It is intended primarily for technical staff,
and outlines the basic requirements and highlights some of the problems that
can be encountered. It is strongly recommended that audiovisual specialists
should be employed for any installation work.
Where recommendations are given for particular manufacturers of audio, video
and distribution equipment this does not imply that other manufacturers'
equipment not mentioned is unsuitable. Those suppliers listed are, however,
known through the practical experience of the author to produce reliable
products that meet specification. Prices indicated should be used only as a
rough guide, but were reasonably accurate at the time of writing.
Most purchasers of a videoconferencing system to be used over ISDN or IP
networks will choose a complete and ready to operate roombased
or portable
system. Another approach, common in higher/further education is to custom
design a videoconferencing facility around a standalone CODEC. In this case
items of audio and video equipment, i.e. microphones, loudspeakers, television
cameras, picture monitors, video recorders, video/data projectors, room control
systems etc., are purchased separately and connected to the CODEC to
complete the system. The advantages of this approach are that the system can
be customised to meet the actual needs of a specific application or made flexible
in operation, (e.g. to interface a single CODEC with more than one conferencing
room), or style of use (such as traditional meeting room videoconferencing or
remote lecture and tutorial presentation). The disadvantages are that interfacing
of audio/video equipment is not straightforward and, without specialised
knowledge, problems can easily occur. In addition the installation will take much
longer and probably be more expensive than a complete package system
bought 'off the shelf'.
The traditional method of room system design is to use the CODEC as a simple
Coding and Decoding device with single audio and video I/P (input) and O/P
(output) connections. Video source selection and audio mixing of microphone
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and other audio sources are carried out using video and audio equipment
external to the CODEC. In such a scenario the CODEC plays little part in the
operation of the system once the videoconference call has been established.
Recent developments in CODEC technology have had an impact on the design
of roombased
systems. Modern CODECs are available with multiple inputs for
remote pan and tilt cameras, document cameras, VCRs and PCs. In addition the
CODEC may alter the video transmission protocol used to transmit each image
depending on the type of video input which is selected. When the document
camera or PC is selected the CODEC maximises image resolution to 4CIF at the
expense of frame rate, as these are predominantly still images. In the case of a
camera or VCR, frame rate is optimised and resolution reduced as these signals
contain significant movement. In addition some CODECs allow the transmission
of two simultaneous independent video signals (Duo Video or Dual Image). In
order to take advantage of these advanced CODEC features it is necessary to
connect each video source directly into the CODEC and carry out source
selection within the CODEC. Many CODECs support multiple microphone inputs
or have facilities to 'daisy chain' CODEC manufacturers proprietary microphones
into a single microphone input. Utilising multiple proprietary microphones can
provide additional facilities including mute buttons and voice activated camera
tracking. An alternative in room based system design is to fully utilise the
facilities within the CODEC for source selection and remote camera control, in
addition to proprietary microphones. A room control system is still required in
this case to simplify the overall control of the system including the CODEC,
cameras, video/data projector, VCR, room audio system etc. but in this case the
overall video and audio installation is simplified while utilising the advanced
features of the CODEC.
Whilst the remainder of this document deals primarily with the first of the two
scenarios outlined above many of the principles apply equally to the simpler
system utilising the extensive facilities available on a modern CODEC.
Other VTAS documents cover related videoconferencing areas and are available
on the VTAS web.
Videoconferencing Rooms deals with the conference environment. Evaluation of
ISDN/IP Videoconferencing Equipment is concerned with ISDN and IP rollabout,
desktop, portable and separate CODEC systems.
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2. HEALTH AND SAFETY
Statutory Regulations: The advice given in this document is offered in good faith,
but it is the responsibility of individuals/organisations following any or all of this
advice to ensure that they comply with all of the relevant statutory regulations
and safety guidelines. All electrical wiring and installation will need to comply
with the IEE wiring regulations¹ and be carried out by qualified staff.
¹ The Institution of Electrical Engineers (IEE) Wiring Regulations 16th Edition
(with amendments)
available from: The IEE, P.O. Box 96, Stevenage, Hertfordshire, SG1 2SD
3. SIGNAL QUALITY
To establish an effective videoconferencing link between sites, the sound and
vision signals being transmitted and received must be of sufficiently high quality
to enable clear, accurate communication without distracting the participants.
This signal quality will depend on:
· the physical, electrical and environmental characteristics of the
conference room;
· the quality of the audio visual and videoconferencing equipment in use;
· the correct adjustment of the audio visual and videoconferencing
equipment;
· the type, and satisfactory adjustment, of the network linking the
conferencing sites.
4. INSTALLATION OF AUDIO AND VIDEO EQUIPMENT
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The installation of audio and video equipment is a specialised area that
demands the skills of qualified and trained staff. While this document hopefully
points prospective purchasers in the right direction, it must be emphasised that
whenever possible specialist audiovisual staff should carry out the installation so
as to minimise the potential technical problems. This is particularly true for the
interconnection of audio equipment, where problems are commonplace and by
no means always straightforward to rectify.
As a very general rule, video equipment is complex but the interconnections for
videoconferencing are usually straightforward. Audio equipment, on the other
hand, is normally much less complex but the interconnections require more indepth
knowledge to avoid problems.
5. THE VIDEOCONFERENCING ENVIRONMENT
These recommendations are intended for organisations planning the installation
of a small to medium sized conference room, accommodating up to 20 persons.
The principles apply to most videoconferencing situations, but teaching to large
groups of students (more than 100) in a lecture theatre brings particular
problems associated with the delivery of satisfactory sound and television
pictures.
The participants at the local site need to see and hear clearly the participants at
the remote site (and vice versa), so the important equipment items are:
television cameras, picture monitors, microphones and loudspeaker/amplifier
units. The size and layout of the room are also important factors.
For a small group, e.g. six persons, one large screen monitor (70 cm diagonal)
will produce an image large enough to be viewed comfortably by everyone. For
20 persons a much larger image or several smaller viewing monitors will be
needed. The size of the room will dictate the size and power output capacity
required for the loudspeaker/amplifier units. Camera position and the type of
camera lens are also dependent on room layout, as is the placement of
microphones.
Videoconferencing from large lecture theatres poses a much greater challenge
than videoconferencing from a meeting room. Sound amplification is normally
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needed to provide adequate coverage for the theatre microphones and sound
sources (e.g. video replay) in addition to that required for the remote conference
sound. The reverberation time (i.e. the amount of echo in the room) is usually
also much greater than in a small room. These two factors militate against
effective conferencing by increasing the tendency for acoustic feedback (i.e.
howlaround)
and introducing an amount of echo that normal videoconference
echo cancellers cannot handle.
Effective sound pickup from a lecture theatre audience is extremely difficult
unless a roving or highly directional microphone is used, both of which require
an operator. A large audience will also require a very large picture image to view
the remote site, such as that provided by a video projector. As the image
produced from such projection is significantly less intense than that produced
from a conventional picture monitor, the ambient room light will need to be
dimmed for acceptable viewing. Unfortunately the lecture theatre video camera
(providing audience images to the remote site) requires a fairly high level of
lighting to produce good quality pictures. The introduction of lecture theatre
video/data projectors with a light output of 3000 ANSI Lumens may allow the
auditorium lights to be operated at a suitable level to provide adequate pictures
from the lecture theatre. In addition automatic cameras will not normally produce
an accurately framed image of members of the audience, so the cameras will
need operators if close up images of audience members are required.
Sometimes videoconferencing sessions need to be relayed to large lecture
theatres where the audience are passive observers. In this case, only sound and
vision signals from the remote site need to be transmitted to the lecture theatre
for reproduction and display. This is much easier to achieve: it is when
interaction (i.e. return sound and vision) is required from the lecture theatre
environment that the main problems arise.
6. ROOM CONTROL SYSTEMS
6.1 Introduction
Where a CODEC is to be integrated with audio and video equipment to form a
room system the control of such a system can become complex. It is possible to
use a number of individual infra red remote controls and cabled control panels to
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operate such a system but this will be difficult and confusing for the occasional
user. An alternative approach is to utilise a room control system that brings
together the control of all AV equipment in the system onto one control panel.
Merging the control of all the AV equipment in such a way can ensure that the
most complex of systems may be 'self operated' by a conference participant
without technical support.
6.2 Methods of Remote Control
All professional audio visual equipment and an increasing number of domestic
products incorporate remote control facilities. In the case of professional
equipment this is normally provided by a serial data connection complying with
the RS232 protocol. This not only provides remote control but also reports the
status of the equipment back to the control system. Where professional
equipment does not support RS232 communications or domestic products
utilising infra red (IR) control are used then the control is only oneway
i.e. there
is no facility to report back equipment status.
6.3 Control Systems
Room control systems normally comprise an equipment rack, which contains the
main system processor and a number of control cards. The exact number and
type of control ports will depend on the complexity of the system but will
normally include RS232 ports, Infra Red (IR) ports and relay switch contacts.
The control software is custom developed to take into account the particular AV
equipment installed as part of the system. Control of all AV functions is available
on either a touch panel LCD screen or a push button panel. LCD touch panels
as shown in Figure1 have the added advantage that they may have multilayered
menu structures, which facilitates increased levels of system complexity. In the
illustration below the room control system interfaced with the following AV
equipment:
Two
cameras with integral pan and tilt units
SVHS
VCR
Video
Data Projector
Video
and Audio Matrix
Stereo
Audio Amplifier
Volume/
Microphone Mute Control Box
In this particular example the room control system was not interfaced to the
CODEC, this decision was to simplify operation for the user.
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Figure 1. Room Control System
Manufacturers · Panja AMX
· Crestron
Price Guide · Control System including monochrome
touchpanel and custom programming,
£4000 £
5000
7. VIDEO EQUIPMENT
7.1 Introduction
To achieve the high quality of pictures transmitted by the broadcasters requires
a considerable level of expertise in the areas of lighting, scenery, etc., and
operation and alignment of equipment. It is, however, relatively easy to produce
acceptable pictures in a fixed setting (e.g. a conference room) with inexpensive
cameras that are selfadjusting,
provided that the recommendations outlined
here and in the paper 'Videoconferencing Rooms' are followed.
7.2 The Transmission of Video Information
Video signals may be transmitted in a number of different ways.
7.2.1 Composite Video
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Analogue television signals transmitted to domestic television receivers
carry four components: the black and white signal, the colour signal,
synchronisation information and the sound signal. These four signals
are carried by a radio frequency carrier to enable transmission through
the atmosphere.
After tuning in the receiver (to select the appropriate channel) the
received signal is separated into audio (the sound signal) and video
(vision signal); at this point the video signal is termed composite video.
This is the most common video format used for distribution of vision
signals.
The term `composite' is used because three signals: the luminance
(black and white) information, the chrominance (colour) information and
the synchronisation information, are combined (coded) into a single
signal. As only one signal is involved, composite video is a very
convenient method for processing, distributing and recording television
pictures. A disadvantage is that the coding and decoding processes
necessary to combine and separate the three signals also introduce
artefacts (or distortions) that degrade the final images.
Composite video signals are carried on coaxial cable with a central
signal core and a surrounding screen that is normally earthed through
the terminal equipment. Connectors associated with composite video
signals fall into two categories, BNC connectors on highend
professional equipment and Phono or RCA connectors on some
professional and most domestic equipment.
7.2.2 Svideo
To reduce some of the coding artefacts found in composite video the
signal is split into two signals: luminance (Y), and chrominance (C).
This is termed Svideo
(or Y/C) and is capable of producing higher
quality images, provided that all the equipment in the chain (i.e. camera
through to picture monitor) is designed to handle it. The disadvantage
is that two signals require distribution, processing and recording, which
increases the cost. If equipment is fitted with Svideo
connections this
should be used in preference to composite to improve picture quality.
Svideo
or Y/C cable contains two independent screened cables in a
single casing and is normally terminated in a four pin Mini DIN
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connector. These connectors lack the robustness of BNC or Phono
connectors so care must be exercised when making Svideo
connections.
7.2.3 Component Video
If the colour information is separated further into two independent
signals, even higher image quality is possible as the coding/decoding
processes are now reduced to a minimum. However this means that,
together with the luminance signal, there are now three component
signals demanding three signal paths to be provided throughout the
transmission chain. Equipment using Component Video is normally
equipped with multiple BNC connectors for the three component
signals.
7.2.4 PAL Composite Video
It has been mentioned that a composite video signal has black and
white, colour, and synchronising information combined or coded
together to form the signal. The way in which the colour signals are
coded is determined by the colour system in use. In the United
Kingdom, Phase Alternate Line (PAL) coding is used. Other colour
coding systems are in use around the world, e.g. National Television
Systems Committee (NTSC) in the United States, and Sequential
Colour with Memory (SECAM) in France.
7.3 Video Sources
A videoconferencing room may contain several video sources:
· a camera giving a wide angle general view;
· a second camera with remote pan and tilt, providing a close up of the
participant speaking;
· a document camera or 'Visualiser' to transmit hard copy, three
dimensional objects or overhead transparencies;
· a video playback machine to replay prerecorded
sequences.
7.4 Genlocking/Timing/Colour Phasing
With multiple video sources, a means to select (i.e. switch) between sources
must be introduced. The vision mixer or switcher achieves this.
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In order to provide a clean switch between sources all the video signals fed into
the vision mixer or switcher must be locked together. Where the video signals
are not locked there will be a disturbance on the signal at the O/P of the switcher
during transitions between sources. This normally induces the picture on a
monitor to roll following the switch as the monitor relocks to the new signal. In
order to avoid such picture disturbances it is necessary to use Genlock
techniques to lock all video sources.
Before entering the vision switcher each video signal must meet certain
conditions.
It must be:
· synchronous (i.e. running on the same time base);
· timed at the input to the mixer (i.e. all synchronising pulses for the
separate sources arriving at the same time, i.e. with identical signal delay);
· colour phased at the input to the mixer (i.e. all colour reference signals
arriving in phase).
Video sources are made synchronous by using a Genlock unit to lock the source
time base to a reference time base. Good quality cameras, document cameras
etc. will have the option of a Genlock unit. A means of adjusting timing and
colour phase is also normally provided on these Genlock units. An additional
problem is caused by low cost VCRs such as SVHS and VHS that add a
considerable amount of timing jitter to the vision signal. This is usually
unacceptable to videoconferencing CODECs. To overcome the problem a TimeBase
Corrector (TBC) is required to remove the jitter and stabilise the off tape
signal. Genlock and TBCs are normally associated with professional and
broadcast VCRs and not domestic equipment.
7.5 Categories of Video Equipment
The market breaks down into three convenient categories:
· domestic low
cost and mass produced, but the quality may be
acceptable;
· industrial/commercial medium
price, more durable and to higher
specifications, generally the preferred choice;
· broadcast very
high specification and price; may be the only choice
for very specialised applications, e.g. wide bandwidth conferencing where
high resolution signals are a necessity.
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7.6 Digital/Analogue Signals
The network which transports the sound and vision between the sites is normally
digital. Within the conference room, the connections between audio and video
equipment will, at present, almost certainly be analogue; this will gradually
change to digital as more digital processes are introduced into these areas. The
CODEC is the interface: all inputs to the CODEC will normally be analogue; all
outputs from the CODEC into the network will be digital.
Digital techniques are used extensively in broadcasting studios as they introduce
very little degradation into signal processing, distribution and recording.
However, at present this is significantly more expensive than analogue methods.
For other than high bandwidth videoconferencing the higher quality of digital
equipment would be masked by the limitations of the intervening network so,
until costs fall to the level of analogue, there are few incentives to change.
When digital studio products achieve more market penetration it is quite feasible
that a substantial part of the compression and signal processing presently taking
place within the videoconferencing CODEC will be incorporated in the cameras,
etc., thus reducing the complexity and cost of the CODECs. Currently, for
videoconferencing over normal capacity networks, analogue studio products
have a large price advantage; however this situation is likely to change over the
next few years and needs to be watched closely.
7.7 Video Cameras
Basically, a television camera converts light images into an electrical signal so
that the images may be distributed, recorded and displayed. The camera lens
focuses the images on a photosensitive area, normally a ChargeCoupled
Device (CCD). Inexpensive cameras use one CCD or chip, sections of which
(usually stripes) are arranged to be sensitive to either the red, green or blue
components of light. As only one third of the chip area is sensitive to a single
colour, there are some technical limitations.
More expensive cameras use three separate chips, one for each colour
component; the whole chip area can then be dedicated to the single colour. This
produces significantly better results, especially in terms of resolution and signal
to noise ratio. These cameras are also less likely than a single chip camera to
introduce spurious artefacts.
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For most videoconferencing applications, especially where data transmission
rates are below 2 Mbit/s, the higher quality of three chip cameras is unlikely to
be noticed. For high data rate networks where high resolution is important, e.g.
the transmission of medical radiographs (the images generated from an xray
scanner), then a three chip camera will bring significant improvements in image
quality. For videoconferences using ISDN or IP networks, data rates are
normally below 2 Mbit/s and in such cases single chip cameras are adequate.
The introduction of cameras with pan and tilt heads integrated into a single unit
has had a significant impact on this type of installation. This combined unit can
simplify the installation as both camera and pan and tilt functions are controlled
from a single IR remote control or a single RS232 port on the room control
system. However it should be noted that cameras of this type do not normally
include Genlock facilities.
Important
Factors
· Horizontal resolution in excess of 400
lines (at the centre).
· Signal to noise ratio better than 45 dB.
· Sensitivity 1400 Lux at a lens stop of f5.6
or greater (no camera gain in
circuit).
· Choosing the appropriate lens for the
application.
· A Genlock facility (to synchronise the
camera to a reference source).
· An Svideo
output (if this option is
being used).
Manufacturers · JVC
· Panasonic
· Sony
Price Guide · Single chip CCD cameras, £500£
1,500
· Three chip cameras, £2,500£
25,000
7.8 Document Viewers
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A document viewer, sometimes called an imager or visualiser, enables
documents, three dimensional objects, radiographs or overhead transparencies
to be introduced into a videoconference (some models have provision for single
35 mm slides). The device consists of an illuminated baseboard, lit either from
above (incident light) for documents or from below (transmitted light) for
transparencies, radiographs, etc., with a camera pointing vertically down and
focused onto the baseboard.
Usually a simple switching arrangement allows two further video sources (e.g.
cameras) to be selected as an alternative to the visualiser camera signal. In low
budget rooms this facility can act as a simple vision switcher, allowing the
presenter to select camera sources at will, thus avoiding the need to purchase a
separate vision mixer/switcher. As documents, radiographs and overhead
transparencies vary greatly in contrast it is essential that an auto iris lens be
fitted, together with auto camera gain, so that these wide variations in intensity
can be accommodated with minimum user intervention.
Most document viewers or visualisers use a single chip video camera and output
both composite video and Svideo
as standard. An alternative approach is to use
a camera with a progressive scanning technique, which can provide higher
resolution images and output an XGA signal in addition to composite and Svideo.
These products are excellent for still images and documents but due to
the scanning nature of the display do not cope well with image movement, eg
the rotational display of a three dimensional object. Several CODECs are now
equipped with a 15 pin high density D type connector to facilitate the connection
and display of a PC or any other device with an SVGA or XGA output.
Important
Factors
· Horizontal resolution in excess of 400
lines (centre).
· Signal to noise ratio better than 45 dB.
· Sensitivity 3 Lux at a lens stop of f1.4
(with camera gain).
· Lens should have
auto
focus and be switchable to
manual focus
minimum
10:1 power zoom range
lens
stops to f1.4.
· Genlock facility.
· All units will have incident (i.e. top)
lighting, normally fluorescent tubes, to
display documents, etc.
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· Transmitted (bottom) lighting is also
essential for overhead transparencies,
radiographs, etc.
Manufacturers · Barco
· Elmo
· JVC
· Wolfvision
· Samsung
Price Guide · £2,500£
12,000
7.9 Slide Viewers
These enable 35 mm transparencies to be introduced as illustrations during a
conference. Basically they consist of a slide projector optically coupled to a
video camera. In general the degree of adjustment of iris, black level and colour
balance required to produce an acceptable image from each slide mitigates
against the use of such equipment. The display of still images from a PC and
shared with remote sites using data sharing may be a more efficient and
effective way of dealing with still images.
Important
Factors
· Some models have provision for only a
few slides; to load/unload/adjust slides
during a live conference can prove
uncontrollable and, at the least,
inconvenient.
· A zoom facility can be useful for a
poorly framed slide.
· Colour balance adjustment can also
improve a poor slide image.
Manufacturers · Elmo
· Tamron
Price Guide · ~£2,000
7.10 Vision Switcher/Mixer
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When multiple vision sources are installed then a vision switcher/mixer will be
necessary to select the intended camera, document camera, VCR, etc. for
transmission. For the transition between cameras to be flawless (i.e. without loss
of synchronism, or disturbance to the picture) all sources must be timed,
Genlocked and colour phased at the input to the vision switcher/mixer (see 7.4
above), i.e. they must be fully synchronous.
Only simple mixers or more likely simple video switchers are necessary for
videoconferencing. Sophisticated broadcast types of switcher/mixer, which offer
a host of special effects, are unsuitable for most videoconferencing applications
as these special effects can produce artefacts during the
compression/decompression processes in the CODEC.
Camera sources, being purely electronic, are relatively stable in operation, i.e.
timing fluctuations in or jitter of their vision signals are very small. Thus, provided
the signals are Genlocked, timed and colour phased, they pass through the
vision mixer with ease and are termed stable sources.
Video cassette players have an electromechanical
tape path, which introduces
a great deal of instability to the vision signals. This instability is too great to allow
the signals to be Genlocked and colour phased, so the signals are termed
asynchronous. Some CODECs are unable to process these unstable signals but
several will play unstable video from a domestic VHS VCR successfully. To
reduce this instability to an acceptable level requires an expensive device called
a time base corrector (TBC), which electrically reduces the signal jitter and
synchronises the player to a reference signal.
Another approach to handling unstable signal sources is to design a vision mixer
around two digital television picture stores; these picture stores can memorise a
full television picture. Essentially, an asynchronous or unstable source is
digitised and written into one picture store with clock pulses derived from the
unstable source. This information is then read out of the store with clock pulses
generated from a stable (camera type) reference source. If this process is
repeated for a second source (a camera or another asynchronous source), then
the two memorised digital images can be read out together using a stable clock
pulse, and the sources may be cut, mixed or whatever in complete
synchronisation. There is no need to Genlock sources if this frame store type of
mixer is used.
To minimise any potential switching artefacts during vision switcher transitions
(i.e. cuts or mixes), the transitions can be delayed to occur always in the vertical
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interval between consecutive television frames. This facility is termed vertical
interval switching: a very desirable feature. However an undesirable outcome of
the use of a frame store mixer is that it delays the video signal by one frame
when compared to the audio signal presented to the CODEC. In all
videoconferencing systems video and audio signal synchronisation, also called
lip sync, is very important. The lack of lip sync can be very disturbing to view and
impact on the flow of the conference. As such any process that contributes to a
lack of audio and video synchronisation should be avoided.
Simple switchers in addition to having source selection may have RS232 remote
control. This will allow the switcher to be controlled from a room control system.
In summary there are three options available:
Frame Store Mixer:
Complex in operation and adds delay to the video but provides flawless
transitions.
Simple Switcher with Genlocked Sources:
Simple to operate and integrate with room control system and provides flawless
transitions, but requires expensive TBC on VCR sources.
Simple Switcher with non Genlocked Sources:
Simple to operate and integrate with room control system but there will be
picture disturbances on each video switch. The performance of this system is
similar to that of a rollabout CODEC where multiple cameras and a VCR are
connected directly to the CODEC with source selection taking place within the
CODEC.
Important
Factors
· Frequency response 0 5.5
MHz ± 0.5
dB.
· Signal to noise ratio better than 65 dB.
· Differential phase, differential gain less
than 2°, 2% respectively (JESSICA).
· Vertical interval switching.
· Svideo
inputs.
· RS232 Remote Control.
Manufacturers · Panasonic frame
store mixer/switcher
(no Genlock necessary).
· Panasonic conventional
switchers
18
(sources require Genlocking for flawless
switching).
· Autopatch conventional
switchers
(sources require Genlocking for flawless
switching).
· Kramer conventional
switchers
(sources require Genlocking for flawless
switching).
Price Guide · £400£
25,000
7.11 Picture Monitors
These are categorised into three grades:
1. Broadcast quality, with a high specification and price. These include special
facilities for high quality signal monitoring, with such features as underscanning
the image to see all the edges of the picture.
2. Good quality monitors with defined specifications; may have underscanning.
3. Domestic receivers, perhaps with a more robust metal case.
The signal compression during videoconferencing reduces the overall picture quality
to a level that is normally exceeded by the potential picture quality of a domestic
receiver (grade i). Unless the special facilities provided by a professional or
broadcast quality monitor are considered necessary there is little point in paying
considerably more money for grades ii and iii.
Important
Factors
· Ensure the monitor is of the appropriate
size for the intended viewing distance
(see Videoconferencing Rooms, section
2.7).
· Ensure that the appropriate video
interfaces are fitted (i.e. Svideo
if this
video format is being used).
· Most domestic televisions from
mainstream manufacturers are of such
high quality that the picture will be
adequate for videoconferencing.
Manufacturers · Barco
19
· JVC
· Panasonic
· Philips
· Sony
Price Guide · Domestic £300£
1,500
· Grade 2 monitors £1,000+
· Broadcast monitors £3,000+
7.12 Camera Pan and Tilt Heads
The introduction of cameras with an integrated pan and tilt unit has had a major
impact on small videoconferencing installations. Where systems require
cameras with Genlock or special lenses, for example in large lecture theatre
installations, separate pan and tilt units are required.
Important
Factors
· In videoconferencing both horizontal
movement (pan) and vertical movement
(tilt) are very important.
· Ensure that both the pan and tilt
movements are smooth and controllable.
· Many remote pan and tilt heads are
designed for outdoor industrial
surveillance/security, where quiet and
smooth operation are not necessary
requirements. These are too noisy, and
the movement too jerky for conference
use.
Manufacturers · Dennard
· Molyneux
· Videmech
Price Guide · £500£
1,000
7.13 Video Players/Recorders
20
Currently most conferencing rooms will use either VHS or SVHS
analogue
format cassette machines for recording and playing sequences, as these are the
most popular. Less popular domestic formats, 8 mm or Hi8,
will also be seen.
Digital formats, that offer many advantages but at present cost rather more, are
gradually establishing themselves on the market, in particular MiniDV.
The time base instability of video players has been mentioned in 7.10 above.
Some CODECs are unable to handle unstable vision sources however most
modern CODECs will successfully transmit video from a domestic VCR.
Manufacturers · JVC
· Panasonic
· Philips
· Sony
Price Guide · Domestic VHS £200£
700
· SVHS
£700+
· Digital £1,000+
7.14 Scan Converters for Computers
Within videoconferences there is a requirement to use PC presentations and
applications, which can be transmitted to other sites in the videoconference. This
may be achieved in a number of ways.
Where a videoconferencing system is T.120 capable a PC may be connected to
the CODEC at either site using a serial data connection. The data transmission
between PCs will occur over a data channel contained within the overall
videoconference transmission signal pass band. For example in an ISDN
conference the available bandwidth will be divided between video, audio and
data. An alternative is to use a data connection over the wide area network or
the Internet to connect PCs within the videoconferencing suites and separate the
data connection from the videoconference channel. This is generally known as a
data sharing conference. Where T120 or data sharing is not available the signal
from the PC may be converted into video format and sent across the normal
video channel. This is achieved by converting the computer (PC) signal into a
composite video (or Svideo)
signal. This composite signal is then processed as
any other video input to the vision switcher/mixer.
21
Several CODECs also include the ability to connect the SVGA O/P of a PC or
laptop directly into the CODEC thus avoiding the requirement for an additional
scan converter, however this function may only operate between CODECs from
the same manufacturer and may not operate in MCU multisite conferences.
Important
Factors
· There are a large number of scan
converters on the market, ranging from
software solutions to comprehensive
digital picture store devices. The
performance of these products is very
variable, so an evaluation prior to
purchase is strongly recommended.
From our experience the manufacturers
listed below can be relied on.
· As only one video signal is normally sent
at a time the receiving videoconference
suite will see only the presenter OR the
PC presentation, T120 or Data Sharing
allows the display of the presenter AND
the presentation at the same time.
Manufacturers · Analog Way
· Vine
· Extron
· Sony
· Tektronix
Price Guide · Software versions from £150
· Hardware versions £300£
2000
7.15 Data Projectors
Due to the poor performance of scan converters as described in section 7.14
and the desire to share video and computer presentations simultaneously, the
installation of a data projector and screen in medium to large videoconference
suites is becoming the norm. The main criteria for projector selection in the
videoconferencing environment are that it should be bright, (better than 2000
ANSILumens)
and quiet in operation (less than 45 dBA).
22
Normal operation of data projection during presentations would require dimming
the room lights however it is a requirement for the videoconferencing cameras
that the participants are adequately lit. Careful consideration of screen position,
lighting, and projector selection can provide high quality projection whilst not
impacting on the transmitted images from the videoconferencing cameras.
The introduction into the videoconferencing environment of any unwanted noise
will have two distinct effects. If the room microphones pick up the noise then it
will be a distraction to the other sites in the conference and may have an impact
on effective video switching during a multisite conference. In addition any
unwanted noise will act as a mask making it difficult for participants in the room
with the projector to hear the audio from other sites. It is essential that the
selected projector is as quiet as possible, in addition housing the projector in an
acoustic baffle may be necessary.
Manufacturers · Epson
· A+K
· Sanyo
· NEC
· Philips
Price Guide · £2000 upwards
7.16 Video equipment connections
A basic connection diagram for a typical video system is illustrated in Figure 2.
The video feed from the remote site (via the CODEC) provides the principal
conferencing image on the main picture monitor (remote monitor). A switching
preview facility avoids the need to install a picture monitor for each local video
source. The document camera provides the synchronising reference signal for
the other cameras' Genlock units. Distribution amplifiers are used extensively to
distribute the signals.
For larger budget installations a separate picture monitor can be provided for
each vision source and a separate Synchronising Pulse Generator (SPG) can
provide the reference signal for Genlocking.
A separate SPG provides a dedicated reference signal for Genlocking the vision
sources and is a preferred and more reliable method. If the reference is a
23
document camera and it is inadvertently switched off, then synchronism between
the vision sources would be lost.
The room control system simplifies the operation of the installation by bringing
together control of all the equipment, cameras, document camera, VCR, video
switcher, CODEC, room lighting, etc. onto one control panel. When specifying
equipment consideration should be given to the required number of video
switcher inputs. The ability to connect temporary video equipment into an
additional auxiliary video input may prove useful in specific conferences. Video
sources such as DVD Players, video microscopes and PC scan converters may
all be connected in this way.
Figure 2. Video Equipment Connections
8. AUDIO EQUIPMENT
8.1 Introduction
The production of reasonable quality audio is very much more difficult than the
production of acceptable quality video. Even broadcasting professionals are
stretched to produce acceptable results in some situations.
24
To exacerbate this, most videoconferencing systems introduce appreciable
signal delays that produce an unacceptable echo. Echo cancellation circuits are
then introduced to reduce this echo to a tolerable level. Effective echo
cancellation is dependent on reasonable room acoustics and, whilst for simple
conference rooms most systems cope adequately, for more complex
installations (e.g. lecture theatres) more comprehensive echo cancellation may
be required.
Generally more attention is concentrated on the visual part of videoconferencing,
but significantly more problems tend to occur with the aural.
8.2 Audio Installation
Audio equipment, particularly microphone circuits, are very prone to picking up
interference in the form of background hum, buzz or noise. As the signal levels
generated by microphones are very small (of the order of millivolts) any potential
electrical or electromagnetic interference need not be very large to cause a very
noticeable effect.
To minimise this interference it is recommended that only balanced, low
impedance audio connections are used. This applies to the whole audio signal
chain and includes microphones, mixers, amplifier, etc. All connecting cables
should be of high quality, screened, twisted pair.
Most audio equipment intended for the domestic market will not be balanced or
low impedance and will use unbalanced inputs and outputs and single screened
cabling.
Unbalanced equipment using single screened connecting cables is not
recommended for videoconferencing installations.
Audio cabling (particularly microphone cables) should be routed away from
sources of interference and should not be run parallel to mains supply cables. All
signal and mains supply cables must be installed according to IEE regulations.
Room lighting dimmers are particularly troublesome due to the high frequency
nature of the interference signals radiated, so are best avoided in the conference
room.
8.3 Echo Cancellation
25
Unless headphones are used to monitor the remote sound then acoustic echo
cancellation will be needed to enable good quality, two way communications.
The compression of the vision signal in the CODEC takes an appreciable time to
execute (200300
milliseconds). The sound signals must be delayed by the
same amount to maintain lip synchronisation. This delay would introduce
intolerable echo if ignored, so echo cancellers are used to reduce the echo to an
acceptable level. Echo cancellers function by sampling a proportion of the
remote site's sound within the local conference room, picked up by the local
microphone, and generating a correction signal to minimise any remote sound
which would normally return to the remote site as an echo. To enable this, one
microphone must be fixed in the conference room in relation to the loudspeaker
that is radiating the remote site's sound. This allows the echo canceller to
monitor the remote sound in the acoustic setting of the local conference room
and align itself to minimise the echo. This process is sometimes referred to as
training. The internal echo cancellers within most CODECs are adequate for
small to medium sized locations. However in lecture theatres where voice
reinforcement PA systems are in use, or in difficult acoustic environments, e.g.
rooms with a lively internal echo due to hard surfaces on walls and floors, an
external echo canceller with a wider window of correction may be required. In
addition to providing echo cancellation to each microphone input, stand alone
echo cancellers can provide sophisticated audio processing including automatic
gain control (AGC), microphone gating and equalisation. Facilities can also be
provided to receive audio signals from sources which do not require echo
cancellation i.e. PCs, VCRs, DVD Players, CD and audio tape players. External
echo cancellers that have been set up with the assistance of an experienced
audio engineer can produce excellent results in the most difficult of audio
environments.
Manufacturers · Gentner
· ASPI Digital
8.4 Microphones
To achieve high quality sound, generally the microphones should be close to the
participating speakers. Many microphones are now available with battery power.
Whilst these can be attractively priced, for convenience and reliability
microphones powered from the audio mixer or through a mains supply power
unit will prove a better choice. Many different types of microphone are available,
in two main categories: capacitor (condenser) and magnetic (dynamic).
26
Capacitor microphones incorporate a signal amplifier that requires power; this
may be supplied from a battery or from an AC mains power supply. Magnetic
microphones do not require any power but are susceptible to electromagnetic
fields. Capacitor microphones have a higher sensitivity, picking up sounds from
a greater distance, and are thus normally preferred in videoconferencing.
Capacitor microphones can be subdivided into:
· tie clip microphones worn
on the lapel to ensure close proximity to
the speaker;
· desk/stand microphones convenient
as participants are not
constrained by microphone cables;
· gun microphones highly
directional; used where it is difficult to get
close to the speaker (useful in lecture theatres).
Microphones can have different response patterns:
· omnidirectional i.
e. equally sensitive in all directions;
· cardioid (heart shaped) i.
e. more sensitive to the front of the
microphone than to the back and sides, so is useful for minimising
extraneous noise;
· super cardioid a
highly directional microphone for special applications
(e.g. gun microphone);
· hemispherical response this
is characteristic of the `boundary layer'
type of microphone that depends on a hard surface, e.g. a table top, for its
performance. These microphones can be very effective in
videoconferencing.
Important
Factors
· Top quality microphones are very
expensive, but excellent results can be
obtained from inexpensive ones.
Manufacturers · AKG
· Audio Technica
· Beyer
· Sennheisser
· Shure
· Sony
Suppliers · Canford Audio
· RS
Components
27
(inexpensive) · Tandy
Price Guide · £50£
200
8.5 Audio Mixers
There are many inexpensive mixers on sale which offer only unbalanced inputs
and outputs: these should be avoided. For a conference room intended for
meetings and small groups, four microphone inputs should be sufficient. In
addition a number of high level inputs to connect a VCR, PC or Auxiliary Audio
I/P from temporary equipment is required. While the input to the CODEC will be
mono the output of many of the devices mentioned above will be stereo. The
mixer will be required to derive a mono feed from each stereo source. A
disadvantage of this single audio input to the CODEC is that echo cancellation
will operate on the signal from the VCR and all non microphone inputs, this will
reduce the quality of such audio sources. Many CODECS have a separate audio
input for VCRs and non microphone inputs on which echo cancellation does not
operate. Consideration should be given to the use of such inputs. Automatic
mixer/microphone systems known in the UK generically as 'Smartmixers' can be
very effective in audio conference situations, as only the microphone closest to
the person speaking will be activated. This enables extraneous noise to be
minimised and the voice signals to be optimised. In videoconferencing, however,
care must be taken in deploying such automatic systems with an echo canceller
in the chain. Effective echo cancellation relies on applying a dynamic correction
signal to the audio from the local room microphones (see Section 8.3 Echo
Cancellation). This correction signal removes any remote audio, which may be
picked up on the local room microphones. The echo canceller takes a finite time
to create this correction signal following any change to the room audio
environment and during this time, known as training, the echo may be intrusive.
If a smartmixer is deployed and the active microphone continually changes
position the echo canceller will retrain on every microphone switch and may
produce poor audio results. An alternative approach is to ensure that one of the
room microphones is continually live, perhaps at the chairmans position with
additional microphones controlled by the smartmixer. In such a scenario two
microphones will always be live, one fixed and one switching to the conference
participant currently speaking, the fixed microphone enables the echo canceller
to train and operate effectively while the smartmixer will reduce the background
noise as the number of active microphones is reduced.
28
Important
Factors
· Balanced inputs and outputs.
· A meter to measure sound level (Peak
Programme Meter (PPM) preferred). A
Volume Unit (VU) meter is more
frequently fitted but these are less easy
to read.
· Provision for microphones, plus at least
one high level input (to enable video
playback).
· Phantom powering for microphone (i.e.
to provide power for capacitor
microphones through the signal
connections this
avoids batteries or
separate power supplies).
Manufacturers · Audio Technica
· Canford
· Shure
Price Guide · £300£
1,000
8.6 Audio Equipment Connections
A typical layout for the audio equipment is shown in Figure 3. The four
microphones, video player and auxiliary audio source are fed to the audio mixer.
The audio mixer has two outputs, a mono mix of all the mixer inputs, which will
be routed to the CODEC, and a stereo mix of all the stereo sources excluding
the microphones. This feed allows the local audience to hear the output of the
VCR, PC, etc. The distribution amplifier routes the sound to the echo canceller
and then to the CODEC for transmission to the remote site. Sound from the
remote site (via the CODEC) passes through the echo canceller before being
amplified and reproduced through the mono loudspeaker system. The
transmitted audio signal level is monitored using the PPM.
29
Figure 3. Audio Equipment Connections
9. DISTRIBUTION EQUIPMENT
9.1 Distribution Amplifiers (DAs)
These are amplifiers that split a single input to produce several isolated outputs
identical to the input. This enables a main transmission signal to be routed to
many destinations without signal degradation. Another big advantage is that the
signals are isolated, so that if one output has a fault (e.g. a short circuit) none of
the other outputs is affected. Distribution amplifiers are used for both audio and
video signals. If the main video output of the conference room is fed into a
distribution amplifier (see Figure 1) then one output can feed the CODEC,
another a picture monitor, another a video recorder and another a waveform
monitor. Video and audio DAs are frequently packaged together.
Specifications:
Video DA
30
· frequency response 0 5.5
MHz 0.5 dB;
· differential gain and phase < 0.5% and 0.5 respectively;
· DC clamping at black level;
· signal to noise ratio >70 dB.
Audio DA
· balanced inputs and outputs;
· frequency response 20 20
kHz 1 dB;
· third harmonic distortion <0.1 %;
· signal to noise ratio >80 dB;
· crosstalk better than 55 dB (when several DAs are packaged together).
Important
Factors
· Where video cables exceed 15 metres
the higher frequency parts of the signal,
especially the colour information, can be
attenuated. Some DAs incorporate
correction circuitry (equalisation) to
compensate for this loss.
· Where long video cables (100+ metres)
are used then much more compensation
is required over the frequency band.
Some amplifiers will provide this.
· This wide band equalisation does
introduce noise to the signal so has to
be used with caution, especially where
CODECs are in the signal chain,
because of the adverse affects of noise
on compression systems.
Manufacturers · Kramer
· Toa
· DVC
· Alice
Price Guide · £100£
500 each, combined audio/video
DAs more expensive
9.2 Fibre Drivers
31
Fibre drivers have been used successfully for several years with digital signals.
As analogue signal processing is still used extensively in audio and video studio
equipment, (e.g. television cameras, audio microphones and mixers), it can be
appreciably less expensive to distribute these signals to local, and remote
locations in the analogue domain, i.e. by using analogue fibre drivers. Analogue
fibre drivers are available that multiplex both audio and video information over a
single fibre. However, serious problems have been experienced with some
products. When analogue audio and video signals are transmitted on separate
fibres there does not seem to be a problem. It is when audio and video are
multiplexed that trouble seems to arise: quite alarming crosstalk can occur (i.e.
video modulating the audio and vice versa). Some manufacturers, however,
have overcome this problem and market first class products.
Manufacturers · Meridian
· Probot
· SVT
Price Guide · For a simplex link, i.e. one transmitter
and one receiver, £1,000£
2,500
10. TEST AND MONITORING EQUIPMENT
The equipment needed for comprehensive video and audio testing is both
complex and expensive, and requires the skills of an experienced engineer. As
most videoconference centres are working to tight budgets this level of
expenditure is inappropriate. Basic audio and video monitoring using test signals
and measuring equipment, however, will verify that equipment and systems are
operating within acceptable limits. For audio a Peak Programme Meter (PPM),
as shown in Figure 2, ensures that the audio signal leaving the studio is of an
acceptable level. For more comprehensive testing of the video equipment and
systems, a colour bar generator and a means of measuring video level and
video colour phase would be recommended; for the audio, a reference tone
source together with the PPM above. One manufacturer, Hamlet, markets
monitoring products particularly suited to videoconferencing. The equipment
superimposes both the video waveform (for video amplitude) and colour vectors
(to measure colour phase) over the image on the outgoing picture monitor,
32
eliminating the need for expensive waveform monitors and vectorscopes. A
simulated PPM is also superimposed on the picture to monitor audio level. Some
high quality, wide range echo cancellers will need settingup
before they are
installed into a conference room. This requires a Sound Pressure Level (SPL) to
set levels.
Important
Factors
· An inexpensive SPL meter quite
adequate for setting up echo cancellers
is available from Tandy.
· There are numerous inexpensive audio
tone sources on the market but we found
that many did not perform to
specification, the main problems being
inaccuracy at the nominal output level of
0 dBm (at 1 kHz) together with variation
in output level as the frequency varied.
Manufacturers · Canford Audio PPMs
· Hamlet picture
monitor overlay of video
waveform and PPM
· Videotech tone
source
· Tandy SPL
meter
Price Guide · PPM £250£
500
· Hamlet measuring equipment £1,200£
2,500
· Audio tone sources £300£
1,000
· SPL meter £35£
2,000
11. GLOSSARY
Artefacts
A term used to describe the distortions added to the original signal during the
coding and decoding processes.
33
Asynchronous
A video signal that is not synchronised to the local reference (or camera) signal.
CODEC COder
DECoder
The equipment that provides the compression and signal processing to convert
high bandwidth analogue sound and vision signals to a form that allows them to
be transmitted and received over low bandwidth digital transmission paths.
CCD Charge
Coupled Device
Used in television cameras as a photosensitive
device to convert light into an
electrical signal.
Composite Video
A method of transmitting video information where the luminance, chrominance
and synchronisation components of a television signal are combined into a
single signal.
DA Distribution
Amplifier
Amplifiers that split a single input to produce several isolated outputs identical to
the input, enabling signals to be routed to many destinations without signal
degradation.
Echo Cancellation
The CODEC delays the vision signal by approximately 200 milliseconds. To
maintain sound/vision coincidence the audio signals are delayed by a similar
amount. This time delay produces unacceptable echo into the conference. Echo
cancellation is introduced electronically to reduce this echo to a workable level.
The conference environment influences the amount of echo, so echo cancellers
are set up within the conference room in use.
Frame/Picture Store
A means of storing electronically one complete television picture, i.e. one frame
of information.
H.320
The umbrella ITUT
standard for narrow band videoconferencing interoperability
over ISDN networks.
H.323
The umbrella ITUT
standard for narrow band videoconferencing interoperability
over Local Area and Wide Area Networks (LANS, WANS).
34
H.261
An ITUT
standard for video coding (or compressing the video signal).
H.263
An ITUT
standard for video coding, specifically designed for operating at low
data rates, i.e. 64 to 128 kbit/s.
Hi8
A modified form of the Sony 8mm video recording format that produces higher
quality by splitting the video signal into black and white (Y) and colour (C)
information, i.e. it records/replays Svideo.
IEE Institution
of Electrical Engineers
ISDN Integrated
Services Digital Network
A nondedicated
dial up, digital service offered by worldwide
telecommunication
providers.
It enables digital transmission over the existing telephone infrastructure.
ITUT
The telecommunications section of the International Telecommunications Union,
dealing with videoconferencing and other standards.
A list of ITUT
standards is available at: http://www.itu.ch/publications/itut/
itutes.
html
Jitter
When an electronic device (e.g. a television camera) generates a signal, the
synchronisation signals are not absolutely stable, i.e. there is a small amount of
timing jitter around a mean.
An electromechanical
device (e.g. a video player) generates a significantly
higher amount of jitter due to the mechanical tape transport mechanism.
NTSC National
Television Systems Committee
The United States' system for coding colour information onto the composite
video signal.
PAL Phase
Alternate Line
The system used in the United Kingdom for coding colour information onto a
composite video signal.
PPM Peak
Programme Meter
Used to measure audio signal amplitude. The meter characteristics are weighted
35
to produce a fast rise but a very slow fall of the needle movement while following
sound signals. This characteristic makes the measurement of rapidly varying
sounds (e.g. music) more accurate.
SECAM Sequential
Colour with Memory
The French system for coding colour information onto the composite video
signal.
SPL Meter Sound
Pressure Level Meter
Used to measure ambient sound levels: required for settingup
high quality echo
cancellers.
SPG Synchronising
Pulse Generator
SVHS
A modified form of the JVC VHS video record format that produces higher
quality results by recording/playing back Svideo
(i.e. Y,C) signals.
Svideo
The luminance and chrominance information of a colour television signal are
transmitted as separate components to improve quality (see Composite video).
T.120
An ITUT
standard for data transmission that enables data, application sharing,
etc. to occur within the pass band of the normal videoconferencing channel.
Training
To operate effectively, echo cancellers need to monitor the echo received from a
remote site within the local conference room and generate a correction signal to
cancel the echo. This alignment procedure is termed `training'.
This process considers not only echo from the remote site but also the acoustic
characteristics of the local conference room.
If the local room has poor acoustics, e.g. a high ambient noise level or very long
term echo, then the echo canceller may not be able to achieve a satisfactory
alignment. The local site will then introduce annoying echo into any conference
in which it participates.
Unstable
A video signal is termed unstable when it emanates from an electromechanical
replay device such as a video player and has not received electronic time base
correction to render it stable.
36
Vectorscope
An instrument that displays colour vectors, and thus enables colour phase to be
measured.
Vertical Interval Switching (VITS)
A method of switching within video switchers/mixers that arranges for the actual
transition to occur in the time between consecutive television pictures so as to
minimise disturbance to the images.
VHS
A video cassette recording format developed by JVC.
VU Volume
Unit Meter
Used to measure audio signal amplitude. For measuring constant signal levels
(e.g. tone) it is adequate.
For the measurement of audio signal levels that are rapidly changing (e.g.
music) it is unsatisfactory (See PPM above).
Waveform Monitor
An instrument that displays a video waveform to enable amplitude
measurements to be measured.
YC Luminance Chrominance
A synonym for Svideo.
Updated: 30/10/2001